by

by [ baı ] function word ***

By can be used in the following ways:

As a preposition (followed by a noun):

The building was destroyed by fire.

As an adverb (without a following noun):

As time went by, things improved.

1. ) used for stating who or what does something

a ) used, especially with passive verbs, for showing who does something or what causes something:

Injured refugees were treated by a Red Cross doctor.

Hull House was founded by Jane Addams in 1889.

Children are fascinated by the idea of magic.

The fabric had been faded by the sun.

a rebellion by separatist guerrilla forces

b ) used for saying who wrote a book or a piece of music, who painted a picture, etc.:

a novel by Graham Greene

mural paintings by Diego Rivera

c ) have a child/baby/son/daughter by someone used for saying who the other parent of someone's child is:

She had a child by each of her three husbands.

2. ) used for stating how something is done

a ) using a particular method to achieve something:

Foreign languages were taught by the traditional method at my university.

The palace balcony is shielded by bulletproof glass.

Every bit of lace is made by hand (=not using a machine).

by doing something: By using the Internet you can do your shopping from home.

by mail/phone/fax etc.: They exchanged New Year's greetings by e-mail.

We'll send you the tickets by mail.

b ) using a particular method of transportation:

by car/train/bus/air etc.: Sophie's parents arrived by taxi.

c ) using a particular road, path, door, etc.:

We returned home by a different route.

She went in by the side entrance.

d ) using a particular name or title:

Staff members generally address each other by their first name.

The U.N. refugee agency is known by its initials UNHCR.

e ) used for saying how you start or finish something:

I'm going to start off by explaining the purpose of our campaign.

3. ) before or until

a ) not later than a particular time or date:

The meeting should have finished by 4:30.

Application forms must be received by March 31st.

b ) during the period until a particular time or date:

By mid afternoon over 5,000 people had visited the exhibition.

by the time (that): By the time Charlotte was 15, she had already achieved worldwide fame.

4. ) how something happens used when saying that something happens in a way that was not planned or intended:

Take care that you don't shoot one of us by mistake.

We met quite by chance.

By a stroke of luck I found the perfect title for my new book.

5. ) used for saying that time passes used for saying that time passes, or how it passes:

As time went by, people's attitudes slowly changed.

The days and weeks seem to fly by.

I find that Friday afternoons just drag by (=go very slowly).

6. ) used for stating how large a change or difference is used for showing how much something has changed, or how much difference there is between things:

House prices rose by an average 23% during 1998.

Owen broke last year's world record by 2.4 seconds.

=> FAR 2B

7. ) moving past someone/something used for saying that someone or something goes past you:

She walked right by me without saying a word.

There were angry shouts from the crowd as the president's motorcade drove by.

8. ) beside or near beside or close to someone or something:

She was sitting over there by the window.

There's an ashtray just by your elbow.

9. ) according to rules according to rules or laws:

Casinos are forbidden by law to contribute to political campaigns.

In the police force we have to do everything by the rulebook.

10. ) according to particular standards used for showing that something is judged according to certain standards of behavior, quality, etc.:

It's no use trying to judge 18th-century morality by modern standards.

Her performance was amazing by any standard.

11. ) visiting a place used for saying that someone stops somewhere for a short time, especially while going to another place:

drop/stop/come by: Why don't you stop by on your way home from work?

Peggy dropped by the office this afternoon.

12. ) used for stating how you hold someone/something used for saying which part of a person's body or thing you take in your hand when you hold them:

Taking me by the arm, she led me into the next room.

Always pick up a CD by the outer edge to avoid damaging the surface.

13. ) concerning personal details used for referring to someone's personality, job, origin, name, etc.:

by nature/profession/birth/name etc.: She was, by nature, a cheerful and friendly sort of person.

An American by birth, Cassidy had spent much of his life in Bolivia.

14. ) used for giving calculations and measurements

1

a ) used for saying what units of measurement are used:

Floor coverings are priced by the square foot.

Industrial workers are generally paid by the hour.

sold by the dozen

1

b ) divide/multiply by used for saying how a number is calculated:

To convert gallons to liters multiply by 3.785.

1

c ) used for giving the size of an area, object, or space by stating its length, width, height, etc.:

The house has a spacious dining room, measuring 18 by 15 feet.

I usually get 4 by 6 inch prints of my pictures.

15. ) used for showing a gradual process

1

a ) used when saying that something happens or changes gradually:

little by little/bit by bit: Little by little Philip got used to life on the farm.

day by day/week by week etc.: His medical condition is continuing to improve day by day.

1

b ) used when things or people do something or are dealt with one after the other:

one by one/stage by stage: One by one the men came forward to receive their medals.

item by item: The finance committee checks through each document, item by item.

(all) by yourself/itself/himself etc.

1. ) alone:

The child had wandered off by herself into the woods.

Her story by itself is not enough to convict him.

It was miserable spending Christmas all by myself.

2. ) without being helped by anyone else:

He couldn't have planned the whole thing by himself.

As she watched, the chairs seemed to slide across the kitchen floor by themselves.

You can't carry that big table all by yourself.

by and by LITERARY

after a short time

by and large

used for referring to something in a very general way:

By and large I think the emphasis should be on recruiting the right people.

by the by OLD-FASHIONED

by the way

by God/gum/Jove etc. INFORMAL OLD-FASHIONED

used for emphasizing what you are saying or for expressing surprise:

I said we'd be there and, by God, we'll be there.

by night/day

during the night/day:

In the desert we traveled by night to avoid the blistering heat.

by the way

used for saying that a remark is not relevant to the main subject of your conversation. The abbreviation BTW is often used in e-mails and TEXT MESSAGES:

By the way, Jeff called this afternoon and he wants you to call him back.